The accepted ontology
Browse accepted Systema Constructum entries: human-made tools, institutions, methods, practices, works, and their definitions.
100 entries in this page
A circumfix is a type of affix — a bound morpheme that attaches around both edges of a word stem simultaneously (prefixing and suffixing at once) to modify its meaning or grammatical function. Two parameters carve the construct: (1) position: the affix spans…
A suffix is a type of affix — a bound morpheme that attaches to the end of a word stem to modify its meaning or grammatical function. Two parameters carve the construct: (1) position: the affix attaches after the stem (e.g. English -ness in happiness, -s in c…
A prefix is a type of affix — a bound morpheme that attaches to the beginning of a word stem to modify its meaning or grammatical function. Two parameters carve the construct: (1) position: the affix attaches before the stem (e.g. English un- in unhappy, re-…
Stem is a human-made morphological category — the base of a word to which affixes attach, and the residue left when affixes are removed. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) residuation: the stem is what remains of a word form once its affixes are taken…
Affix is a human-made morphological category — a bound morpheme that attaches to a word stem (the base) to modify its meaning or grammatical function. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) boundness: the affix cannot stand alone as an independent word, di…
Morpheme is a human-made morphological category — the minimal meaningful unit of a language that cannot be further divided without losing or altering meaning. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) minimality: the unit cannot be decomposed into smaller mea…
Compounding is a word-formation process in which a language juxtaposes two or more free morphemes (independent words or lexical roots) into a single new word. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) the inputs are free morphemes — each retains its lexical i…
Affixation is a morphological process in which a language attaches a bound morpheme — a prefix, suffix, or circumfix — to the edge of a word stem to produce a new word. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) the attached material is a bound morpheme, not a…
Word formation is the made category comprising the processes by which a language's speakers produce new words from existing lexical material. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) the input is existing lexical material of the language — stems, morphemes,…
Trousers are a human-made lower-body garment consisting of a waist section and two separate leg sections that descend from the waist, worn as a single unit covering both legs. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) bifurcated construction — two leg section…
Infixation is a morphological process in which a language inserts a bound morpheme — an infix — into the interior of a word stem, splitting the stem into two parts that bracket the inserted element. Three parameters carve the construct: (1) the inserted mater…
The mediant is scale degree 3 of a key: the pitch a major third above the tonic (in a major key) or a minor third above the tonic (in a minor key), and the bearer of the mediant function — the degree that occupies the middle position of the diatonic scale and…
The supertonic is scale degree 2 of a key: the pitch a major second above the tonic (in a major key) or a minor second above the tonic (in a natural minor key), and the bearer of the supertonic function — the degree that moves from the tonic outward toward th…
The submediant is scale degree 6 of a key: the pitch a major sixth above the tonic in a major key and a minor sixth above the tonic in a natural minor key, bearing the submediant function as the subordinate degree of the scale's upper region. In C major the s…
The subdominant is scale degree 4 of a key: the pitch a perfect fourth above the tonic (equivalently a perfect fifth below it — hence 'subdominant', the degree below the dominant), and the bearer of the subdominant function: the departure function of tonal ha…
A musical mode is a named interval pattern: a fixed ordered sequence of whole and half steps spanning an octave that gives a scale its identity and is named by tradition, independent of the pitch at which it is played. A mode is the pattern; a scale is the or…
The subtonic is scale degree 7 of a natural minor scale: the pitch a whole tone (major second) below the tonic that bears NO leading function. PARAMETERS: (1) intervallic status — the subtonic sits a whole tone (two semitones) below the tonic, in direct contr…
A scale-degree is a position within a musical scale: one of the scale's ordered ordinal slots (1-7 in an octave scale, numbered from the tonic) which, once the scale is fixed, holds a named pitch-class. PARAMETERS: (1) ordinal position — the slot's index with…
The leading tone is scale degree 7 of a major key — the pitch a semitone below the tonic — and the bearer of the leading function: the point of strongest upward pull, whose half-step resolution to the tonic is the sharpest edge of cadential motion and the voi…
The dominant is scale degree 5 of a key: the pitch a perfect fifth above the tonic, and the bearer of the dominant function — the point of greatest harmonic tension in a tonal system, whose resolution back to the tonic is the basic engine of tonal motion. Par…
The tonic is the central pitch of a tonal system: scale degree 1, the 'home' note around which a key is organized. It is the pitch of greatest stability and rest — the goal of cadential motion and the anchor of tonal gravity — from which melody and harmony de…
Image frequency is a human-made concept in superheterodyne receiver design describing the unwanted frequency that, when mixed with the local oscillator, produces the same intermediate frequency (IF) as the desired signal. Parameters: (1) desired frequency (f_…
Quadrature is a human-made signal relationship concept describing two signals that are exactly 90 degrees (π/2 radians) out of phase. Parameters: (1) in-phase component (I) — the reference signal, (2) quadrature component (Q) — the phase-shifted signal, (3) I…
Envelope detection is a human-made signal processing technique for extracting the amplitude envelope of a signal. Parameters: (1) rectification stage (half-wave or full-wave), (2) low-pass filter with time constant tuned to modulation rate but faster than car…
The sideband is a human-made signal processing concept denoting the spectral bands that result from modulating a carrier signal. Parameters: (1) upper sideband (USB) — frequency components above the carrier, (2) lower sideband (LSB) — components below, (3) mo…
The neper is the human-made natural-logarithm ratio unit: the level corresponding to one natural-logarithm unit of a ratio, L = ln(P1/P0) nepers. Parameters: (1) ratio kind — a power ratio, expressed ln(P1/P0), or a field-amplitude ratio (voltage, sound press…
The bel is the human-made whole-logarithm ratio unit: the level corresponding to one power of ten of a power ratio, L = log10(P1/P0) bels. Parameters: (1) ratio kind — for a power ratio, one bel is log10(P1/P0); for a field-amplitude ratio (voltage, sound pre…
A musical-scale is a human-made ordered set of pitch classes spanning an octave, arranged according to a fixed interval pattern that distinguishes one scale from another (major, minor, pentatonic, chromatic, whole-tone, or a culture-specific pattern). PARAMET…
A cognitive phenomenon is a recurring, nameable pattern of mental operation that cognitive science isolates as an object of study — a regularity in perception, memory, reasoning, attention, or learning that can be elicited under controlled conditions and meas…
Heterodyning is a human-made frequency-conversion technique: two signals of different frequencies are combined in a nonlinear mixing element — a diode, a transistor, or the auditory system itself — so the output contains the sum (f1 + f2) and the difference (…
The decibel is a human-made logarithmic unit for expressing the ratio between two values of a physical quantity — power or field amplitude — as a level. Parameters: (1) ratio kind — a power ratio, expressed 10·log10(P1/P0), or a field-amplitude ratio, express…
The interference beat is a human-made measurement technique and conceptual map of wave interference. When two coherent waves of frequencies f1 and f2 (with a small difference) superpose, the resultant amplitude varies periodically at the beat frequency |f1 −…
A tree data structure is a human-made hierarchical data structure: a finite set of nodes in which one distinguished root node has zero or more child nodes, every non-root node has exactly one parent, and no cycle occurs — equivalently, a connected acyclic str…
A chord is a human-made musical construct: a set of two or more pitches (notes) sounded simultaneously, whose members bear harmonic relations to one another. Parameters: (1) size — the number of constituent pitches: dyad (two), triad (three), seventh chord (f…
A key is a human-made musical framework: an organized set of pitches whose members bear functional roles defined by their relation to a central pitch, the tonic. Parameters: (1) tonic — the central pitch class of the framework, the point of departure and reso…
A function is a human-made mathematical structure that assigns to each element of a first set (the domain) exactly one element of a second set (the codomain), written f: A → B with f(x) = y. Parameters: (1) domain — the set of inputs over which the function i…
Language-variety is the analytical genus under which a speech community's linguistic forms are sorted: a form counts as a variety when it is (1) internally rule-governed — stable, systematic conventions of phonology, lexicon, and grammar rather than noise or…
Semitone is the smallest named interval of Western chromatic music — the distance between two adjacent pitch classes, named in two qualities: the diatonic semitone (a minor second, e.g. E–F or B–C, spanning two adjacent letter names) and the chromatic semiton…
Equal temperament is a human-made tuning system in which the octave is divided into twelve equal steps, each step (the chromatic semitone) carrying a frequency ratio of 2^(1/12) ≈ 1.059463, exactly 100 cents. Parameters: (1) frame — the octave, the 2:1 freque…
The Blackman window is the three-term cosine-sum window function: w(n) = 0.42 - 0.5*cos(2*pi*n/(N-1)) + 0.08*cos(4*pi*n/(N-1)), n = 0..N-1, its coefficients chosen so the first three side lobes cancel. PARAMETERS: (1) length N — the number of samples the wind…
The Bartlett window is the triangular window function that tapers a finite data segment linearly from a peak of 1 at the centre to 0 at both ends: w(n) = 1 - |2n - (N - 1)|/(N - 1), n = 0..N-1. PARAMETERS: (1) length N — the number of samples the triangle spa…
Octave is a human-made musical interval defined by a 2:1 frequency ratio between two pitches, used as the unit of pitch-class identity, register, and transposition in Western music. Parameters: (1) frequency ratio — the two tones stand in a 2:1 ratio, definin…
The exponential function is a human-made mathematical function that assigns to each real number x the value obtained by raising the base e (Euler's number, ≈ 2.718281828) to the power x, written exp(x) or e^x. Parameters: (1) base — fixed at e, the unique num…
A fermata is the notational glyph — a small arc or squared bracket enclosing a dot, placed above (or less often below) a notehead, chord, or rest — that suspends the rhythm at that point: the performer holds the sounding note or the silence beyond its notated…
A barline is the vertical line drawn across a staff that delimits bars (measures): a boundary mark separating one unit of musical time from the next, by which the beat structure set by the time signature is grouped into the recurring segments the eye can navi…
A rest is the notational glyph that fixes a duration of silence on the staff: a mark that occupies rhythmic space without sounding a pitch, placed on a line or space of the staff to denote the absence of sound for a stated length of time. Parameters: (1) dura…
A note is the atomic notational unit of written music: a glyph — a notehead placed on a line or space of a staff, optionally with a stem and flags or beams — that fixes one pitch and one duration. Parameters: (1) pitch — the notehead's position on a line or s…
A staff (stave) is a notational structure of parallel horizontal lines — standardly five, with the four spaces between them — whose successive lines and spaces encode successive steps of a diatonic scale, forming the reference frame in which written pitches a…
Sheet music is a human-made document bearing a musical score in standard notation: a page or set of pages whose printed, engraved, or digitally rendered marks — staves, notes, clefs, dynamic and articulation marks, and text — encode a musical work, laid out f…
A music stand is a human-made support fixture shaped to the held-object class 'sheet music': a flat or slightly inclined reading surface of a width matching a full folio, mounted on a post that holds the pages at reading height. Parameters: (1) surface geomet…
Dynamic-range is a human-made conceptual measure of the spread between the maximum and minimum usable signal levels in a system, expressed as a ratio or in decibels. Parameters: (1) maximum usable level — the highest signal level before distortion or clipping…
A commit is a version-control record object that captures the state of a project at a single point in time together with the metadata that identifies it. Parameters: (1) content snapshot — the tree of file states at that moment; (2) attribution — author, comm…
A specification parameter that defines the smallest distinguishable time interval in a measurement or display system. Its value is determined by the sampling rate (for analog-to-digital conversion), frame rate (for visual displays), or refresh rate (for perio…
Head-related transfer function is a human-made acoustic model that describes the frequency and phase response of a listener's anatomy as a function of source direction and distance. Parameters: (1) measurement geometry — azimuth, elevation, distance; (2) subj…
Binaural-rendering is a human-made audio processing technique that creates spatial sound perception through two-channel headphone playback by applying head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) to audio signals. Its parameters are: (1) spatial model — interaural…
External-representation is a human-made concept that maps the natural phenomenon of encoding information in media external to the mind — physical artifacts, symbols, or structures that carry informational content independently of any specific holder. Its para…
Makeup gain is the gain stage placed after a dynamic-range compression (or any gain-reduction) process that raises the overall signal level back to the intended output level, compensating for the reduction the compression applied. Parameters: (1) position — d…
An envelope follower is a circuit or algorithm that tracks the slowly varying amplitude of an input signal — its envelope — and outputs that amplitude as a separate, usable control signal without altering the input. Parameters: (1) detection — conversion of i…
A category is a formal structure C = (Ob, Mor, (·)∘(·), (id_A)_(A∈Ob)): a collection of objects Ob, a collection of morphisms Mor between them, a composition operation assigning g∘f to each composable pair f: A→B, g: B→C, and an identity morphism id_A for eac…
A second-order digital filter section that implements two poles and two zeros in its transfer function, parameterized by five coefficients (b0, b1, b2, a1, a2) that determine its frequency response. It operates by computing y[n] = b0*x[n] + b1*x[n-1] + b2*x[n…
Spatialization is a human-made audio processing technique that creates the perception of sound direction, distance, and spatial location. Its parameters are: (1) spatial model — binaural (HRTF-based), ambisonic (sphere-encoded), matrix-based (surround formats…
A converter is a purpose-built device — a hardware circuit, integrated chip, or firmware/software artifact — whose sole function is transforming a signal or quantity from one representational domain to another while preserving the carried information content…
An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is a hardware device that converts a continuous-time analog signal into a discrete-time, discrete-amplitude digital representation. Parameters: sampling rate (samples per second, determining the maximum reconstructible fre…
A digital-to-analog-converter is an electronic circuit or integrated chip that reconstructs a continuous analog voltage waveform from a stream of discrete digital codes. Its parameters are: (1) resolution — the number of bits per sample, determining quantizat…
A mixer is an audio processing device that accepts multiple input signals, allows independent level adjustment and routing of each channel, and produces a combined output (stereo or multi-channel). Its parameters include: number of input channels, number of b…
A headphone-amplifier is an electronic device whose purpose is to boost low-level audio signals from a source (phone, DAC, mixer) to voltage levels sufficient to drive headphones to adequate volume and dynamic range. Its parameters are: input impedance matche…
A subwoofer is an electro-acoustic transducer specialized for low-frequency audio reproduction, typically handling 20–200 Hz, integrated with a dedicated driver, enclosure, and often an amplifier and crossover. Its parameters are: (1) driver size and excursio…
A speaker is an electro-acoustic transducer that converts electrical audio signals into audible sound waves. Its parameters are: (1) a driver type (dynamic moving-coil, planar magnetic, electrostatic, ribbon, or balanced armature) determining the transduction…
A transducer is an engineered device that converts energy from one physical form to another through a defined transduction mechanism. Its parameters are: (1) an input domain specifying the source energy type (electrical, mechanical, thermal, optical, chemical…
Headphones are a human-made electroacoustic device comprising a pair of miniature loudspeakers (drivers) in earcups, or a single housing containing two drivers, mounted on a headband or ear hook and worn by one listener to convert an electrical audio signal i…
Spectral processing is the method of analyzing and manipulating signals in their frequency-domain representation. It operates by applying the Fourier transform (or variants like STFT, DCT, wavelet transforms) to decompose a time-domain waveform into its const…
A stereo technique (or stereophonic sound) is a method of sound reproduction that uses two or more independent audio channels to create a spatial perception of sound, simulating multi-directional positioning. The system encodes, transmits, or reproduces separ…
A workbench is a human-made work surface for standing craft work: a heavy, flat top at standing height, braced against the forces of cutting, driving, and filing, typically fitted with a vise to hold the workpiece and storage (drawers, pegboard, tool rail) fo…
A desk is a human-made work surface: a flat or gently sloped tabletop supported by legs, pedestals, or a frame, dimensioned so a seated or standing person can write, compute, draw, or craft at it. Parameters: (1) the work surface — material (wood, composite,…
A stand is a human-made support fixture: a manufactured structure — typically a stable base, an upright post or arm, and a contact point (hook, cradle, clip, pad, or tray) — that holds an object upright or at a chosen position when the object is not in active…
Audio-routing is the practice and system of directing audio signals from sources to destinations through a network of paths, buses, and switches. Parameters: (1) topology — the arrangement of routing paths (matrix, bus, point-to-point, or hybrid); (2) signals…
Audio monitoring is a human-made system for listening to audio signals during production, reproduction, or performance, allowing engineers and performers to assess sound quality and timing. Parameters: (1) monitoring chain — source signal, conversion, amplifi…
An audio interface is a human-made device or software system that connects audio sources (microphones, instruments) to a computer for recording and playback, converting analog signals to digital and digital back to analog. Parameters: (1) analog inputs/output…
feedback-control is a human-made control architecture in which a system's output is continuously measured, compared to a desired reference value, and the resulting error drives corrective action to reduce the difference. Parameters: (1) forward path — the pla…
sample-and-hold is a human-made technique and circuit that captures the instantaneous value of a continuous-time signal and maintains (holds) that value for a defined period. Parameters: (1) capture mechanism — a switch or transistor that closes briefly to tr…
Audio-processing is a human-made map of operations performed on audio signals to modify, analyze, or combine them. Parameters: (1) processing type — amplification, filtering, mixing, effects (reverb, delay, modulation, distortion), spatialization, analysis (s…
Sample-rate is the temporal resolution parameter of digital audio, specifying how many discrete amplitude samples are captured per second when converting analog audio to digital. Parameters: (1) nominal rate — common values at 8000, 11025, 22050, 44100, 48000…
Audio bus is a human-made audio routing construct that aggregates multiple audio sources into a single channel for collective processing and mixing. Parameters: (1) bus type — aux send, subgroup, master, or stem; (2) signal routing topology — how sources are…
Signal-chain is a human-made conceptual model in audio engineering that represents an audio signal's route as an ordered sequence of processing stages. Parameters: (1) stage list — an ordered set of processing stages (source, gain stage, filter, effect, conve…
Mid-side processing is a method for encoding and manipulating stereo audio into a mid (sum) channel and side (difference) channel, allowing independent processing of center and stereo width. Parameters: stereo source material, mid/side matrix encoding, proces…
A desk clamp is a human-made mechanical fastener that attaches an object to a desk edge without drilling, using a hinged or screw-tightened jaw that clamps onto the desktop thickness. Parameters: (1) clamping mechanism — screw-actuated or cam-locked jaws with…
A headphone stand is a human-made support fixture that holds a pair of headphones by the headband or earcups when not in use, keeping the headphones off surfaces and preserving their shape. Parameters: (1) support geometry — a base for stability and an uprigh…
A dynamic-range-meter is a human-made measurement instrument, hardware or software, that quantifies the range between the quietest and loudest levels in an audio signal over time. Its parameters are: (1) measurement window and integration time, (2) loudness m…
Signal amplification is a human-made signal-processing technique in which an electronic circuit uses external power to produce an output signal whose amplitude — voltage, current, or power — is a scaled version of an input signal, while ideally preserving wav…
Dynamic-range-processing is a human-made family of audio signal-processing techniques that modify the dynamic range of a signal by applying variable gain as a function of level: members attenuate either above a threshold (compression, limiting) or below it (e…
Crossover is a human-made audio signal processing technique that splits an incoming audio signal into two or more frequency bands, each routed to a different destination such as a speaker driver or processing chain. Parameters: (1) crossover frequencies (spli…
Expander is a human-made audio processing technique that increases the dynamic range of a signal by reducing the amplitude of quieter portions relative to louder portions. Parameters: (1) threshold level below which expansion applies, (2) ratio of output-to-i…
Send effect is a human-made audio routing configuration in which a signal is split to feed an effect unit in parallel, with the effect's output mixed back with the dry signal, rather than placed in series. Parameters: (1) send level — amount of signal diverte…
Insert effect is a human-made audio routing configuration in which a signal passes through an effect unit in series between source and destination, with the effect's output feeding the next stage in the chain. Parameters: (1) effect unit — the processor inser…
Audio mixing is a human-made practice of blending multiple recorded sound sources into a coherent whole by adjusting levels, panning, dynamics, equalization, time-based effects, and routing to create a unified listening experience. Parameters: (1) source trac…
Beyond-reasonable-doubt is the criminal-law standard of proof requiring the prosecution's evidence to establish every element of the charged offense to such a degree that no reasonable alternative conclusion, consistent with the evidence, remains open to the…
Presumption-of-innocence is a human-made legal principle that structures criminal proceedings by requiring the state to prove guilt rather than the accused to prove innocence. Its parameters are: (1) the accused enters proceedings with legal innocence assigne…
Gain-staging is a human-made audio engineering practice of setting and maintaining signal levels at each stage of an audio processing chain to preserve optimal signal-to-noise ratio and avoid clipping or noise accumulation. Parameters: (1) input gain — level…
Upward expansion is a human-made dynamic-range processing technique that increases the gain of a signal when its level falls below a threshold, thereby expanding the perceived dynamic range. Parameters: (1) threshold — level below which expansion occurs; (2)…
Parallel compression is a human-made audio mixing technique in which a signal is routed simultaneously through one or more compressor paths and an unprocessed (dry) path, and the resulting outputs are blended back together, so the treated signal combines the…